Cross Cultural Exchanges and the Silk Road Notes (pg. 287-310)
In the year 139 B.C.E., the Chinese emperor Han Wudi sent an envoy named Zhang Qian on a mission to lands west of china. The emperor's purpose was to find allies who could help combat the nomadic Xiongnu, who menaced the northern and western borders of the Han empire. From captives he had learned that other nomadic peoples in far wester lands bore grudges against the Xiongnu, and he reasoned that they might ally with Han forces to pressure their common enemy.
The problem for Zhang Qian was that to communicate with potential allies against the Xiongnu, he had to pass directly through lands they controlled. When Zhang Qian left Han territory, Xiongnu forcers captured him. For ten years the Xiongnu held him in comfortable captivity: they allowed him to keep his personal servant, and they provided him with a wife, with whom he had a son. However, he escaped with his family and servant. He even kept the yak tail that Han Wudi had given him as a sign of his ambassadorial status. He fled to the west, but didn't succeed in lining up allies against the Xiongnu. While returning to China, Zhang Qian again fell into Xiongnu hands but managed to escape after one year's detention when the death of the Xiongnu leader led to a period of turmoil.
Although his diplomatic efforts did not succeed, Zhang Qian's mission had far-reaching consequences. Zhang Qian had brought back information of immense commercial value. While in Bactria about 128 B.C.E., he noticed Chinese goods-textiles and bamboo articles-offered for sale in local markets. He found out that the the articles had come by way of Bengal. From this information he deduced the possibility of establishing trade relations between China and Bactria through India.
The intelligence that Zhang Qian gathered during his travels thus contributed to the opening of the silk roads-the network of trade routes that linked lands as distant as China and the Roman empire - and more generally to the establishment of relations between China and lands to the west. China and other classical societies imposed political and military control over vast territories. They promoted trade and communication within their own empires, bringing regions that had previously been self-sufficient into a larger economy and society.
The influence of the classical societies did not stop at the imperial boundaries. Nearby peoples regarded their powerful neighbors with a mixture of envy and suspicion, and they sought to share teh wealth that those neighbors generated.
Beyond their relations with neighboring peoples, the classical societies established a broad zone of communication and exchange throughout much of the earth's eastern hemisphere. Trade networks crossed the deserts of central Asia and the depths of the Indian Ocean. Long-distance trade passed through much of eurasia and north Africa, from China to the Mediterranean basin, and to parts of sub-Saharan Africa as well.
This long-distance trade profoundly influenced the experiences of peoples and the development of societies throughout the easter hemisphere. It brought wealth and access to foreign products, and it enabled peoples to concentrate their efforts on economic activities best suited to their regions. It facilitated the spread of religious traditions beyond their original homelands, since merchants carried their beliefs and sometimes attracted converts in the lands they visited.
Long-Distance Trade and the Silk Roads Network
Human communities have traded with one another, sometimes over long distances. Before classical times, long-distance trade was a risky venture. Ancient societies often policed their own realms effectively, but since they were relatively small and compact, extensive regions lay beyond their control. Trade passing between societies was therefore liable to interception by bandits or pirates. This risk increased the costs of long-distance transactions in ancient times.
During the classical era, two developments reduced the risks associated with travel and stimulated long-distance trade. Rulers invested heavily in the construction of roads and bridges. They undertook expensive projects primarily for military and administrative reasons, but roads also had the effect of encouraging trade within individual societies and facilitating exchanges between different societies. Classical societies built large imperial states that sometimes expanded to the point that they bordered on one another: the campaigns of Alexander of Macedon, brought Hellenistic and Indian societies into direct contact, and only small buffer states separated the Roman and Parthian empires.
Trade Networks of the Hellenistic Era
Long-distance trade's tempo noticeably increased during the Hellenistic era, partly because of the many colonies established by Alexander of Macedon and the Seleucid rulers in Persia and Bactria. Though originally populated by military forces and administrators, these settlements soon attracted Greed merchants and bankers who linked the recently conquered lands to the Mediterranean basin. The Seleucid rulers worked to promote trade. They controlled land routes linking Bactria, which offered access to Indian markets, to Mediterranean ports in Syria and Palestine.
Like the Seleucids, the Ptolemies maintained land routes-in their case, routes going south from Egypt to the kingdom of Nubia and Meroe in east Africa-but they also paid close attention to sea lanes and maritime trade. The ousted pirates from sea lanes linking the Red Sea to the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean. They also built several new ports, the most important being Berenice on the Red Sea, while Alexandria served as their principal window on the Mediterranean.
Mariners from Ptolemaic Egypt learned about the monsoon winds that governed sailing and shipping in the Indian Ocean. During the summer the winds blow regularly from the southwest, whereas in the winter they come from the northeast. Knowledge of these winds enabled mariners to sail safely and reliably to all parts of the Indian Ocean basin. During the second century B.C.E., Hellenistic mariners learned the rhythm of these winds from Arab and Indian seamen whose ancestors had sailed before the monsoons for centuries. Merchants then established regular links by way of the Red Sea between India and Arabia in the east and Egypt and the mediterranean basin in the west.
Establishment and maintenance of these trade routes were very expensive and called for substantial investment in military forces, construction, and bureaucracies to administer the commerce that passed over the routes. Long-distance trade stimulated economic development within the Hellenistic realms themselves, bringing benefits to local economies.
With official encouragement, a substantial trade developed throughout the Hellenistic world, from Bactria and India in the east to the Mediterranean basin in the west. Spices, pepper, cosmetics, gems, and pearls from India traveled by caravan and ship to Hellenistic cities and ports. Grain from Persia and Egypt fed urban population in distant lands. Mediterranean wine, olive oil, jewelry, and works of art made their way to Persia and Bactria.
Maritime trade networks through the Indian Ocean linked not only the large classical societies of Eurasia and north Africa, but also smaller societies in east Africa. During the late centuries B.C.E., the port of Rhapta emerged as the central center on the east African coast. With increasing trade, groups of professional merchants and entrepreneurs emerged at Rhapta, and coins came into general use on the east African coast. Merchants of Rhapta imported iron goods(spears, axes, and knives) from southern Arabia and the easter Mediterranean region in exchange for ivory, rhinoceros horn, tortoise shell, and slaves obtained from interior regions. the Hellenistic era fostered economic organization and the emergence of states in the distant lands that they brought into interaction.
The Silk Road
When classical empires were established, the scope of long-distance trade expanded. As it became more popular, merchants and travelers began to construct trade routes. (MU) These were referred to as the silk roads and connected much of Eurasia. From the Han capital of Chang'an, the main road went west until it arrived at the Taklamakan desert. One of the most dangerous and inhospitable regions of the earth, the desert would cause problems for trade, so the silk road split into two main branches that skirted the desert and passed through oasis towns around it to the north and south. (MU) The silk roads included many roads and sea lanes that sometimes broke into separate branches. The silk road got its' name because silk was a popular good traded over it, mainly exchanged by China. On the positive side, people could trade goods and ideas, but negatively, communicable diseases were spread. Religions like Buddhism,(MU) Hinduism, and Christianity were also spread throughout the silk roads sharing their culture and architecture. Spices were another popular exchanged good. Cloves, nutmeg, mace, and cardamom came from southeast Asia. (MU) Spices were mainly for food preservation, flavoring, and medicines. India exported cotton textiles and exotic items such as pearls, coral, and ivory. (MU) Central Asia traded jade and horses while the Roman empire traded glassware, jewlery, artwork, perfume, and textiles. Some people made very long trips to the silk road to trade goods. The Romans were said to have traveled as far east as India overseas. Although, individuals typically would deal with long-distance trade in stages. Sometimes, caravans would transport the goods. Between China and Bactria the Chinese and central Asian nomadic peoples dominated trade in these caravans. (MU) The Romans began to often trade between India and the Mediterranean and supposedly departed 120 ships to travel there. After the end of the Roman and Han empire, the road was restored by the Tang, Song, and Mongols.(M.M.)
The Spread of Buddhism and Hinduism
Buddhism had become well established in northern India by the third century B.C.E. It attracted(MU) lots of merchants who then spread Buddhism to Iran, central Asia, China, and southeast Asia. Buddhism was first established in oasis towns located along the silk roads. Buddhism then spread to the steppes in central Asia and to China. Buddhism was the most prominent faith of silk roads merchants from about 200 B.C.E. to 700 C.E. As Buddhism spread to central Asia and China, both Buddhism and Hinduism were attracting followers(MU) in southeast Asia. Merchants also spread their faith using the sea lanes. Many Indian rulers and kings converted to Buddhism, while the others spread Hindu cults. The rulers began to call themselves rajas and would try to increase their rule by relating themselves with religious traditions(M.M.).
The Spread of Christianity
During early centuries C.E., the Roman officials persecuted early Christians. Christian missionaries took Paul of Tarsus as their example to attract converts (MU), and also used the silk roads to spread Christianity. During second and third centuries C.E. many missionaries spread Christianity through the Mediterranean basin. One of the more famous missionaries was Gregory the Wonderworker. He performed miracles (expelled demons, moved boulders, changed the path of rivers during floods) and made Christianity popular in central Anatolia. By the late third century C.E., Christianity was popular throughout the Meditteranean Basin despite continual opposition from the Roman government. By the second century C.E. Christianity also flourished in southwest Asia (Mesopotamia, Iran, India). Christianity became a main religion in southwest Asia along with Judaism and Zorastrianism. After about fifth century C.E., Christian communities in the Mediterranean basin and southwest Asia became increasingly different and didn't agree on some issues. Christianity was also popular amongst the lower classes that included people living in urban areas and women(M.M.).
The Spread of Manichaeism
Manichaeism is based on a Zorastian prophet called Mani (216-272 C.E.). He was also influenced by Christianity and Buddhism. He said that Zarathustra was the prophet of Persia, Buddha was the prophet of India, and Jesus was the prophet of the Mediterranean. He thought the world needed a prophet for all humanity. He blended Zoroastrian, Christian, and Buddhism to create a faith that would serve the needs of a cosmopolitan world. He urged followers to reject worldy pleasures. His doctrine explained the presence of good and evil and also provided ways to achieve personal salvation. He insited that individuals had high ethical standards. Devout Manichaeans abstained from marrige, sexual relations, fine clothing, meat, rich foods, and other personal comforts. Less devout Manichaeans led more conventional lives, but still observed a strict moral code and provided food and gifts for devout Manichaeans. By the end of the third century C.E., Manichaeism communities had been established in all of the large cities and trading centers of the Roman empire. Political leaders exterminated Manichaeism in the Mediterranean basin during the fifth and sixth centuries C.E., but it survived in central Asia.
The Spread of Epidemic Diseases
The silk roads also made it easier for infectious and contagious diseases to spread throughout the classical world. These diseases were exposed to populations who didn't have any immunity to them, causing many deaths. During the second and third centuries C.E. the Han and Roman empires experienced outbreaks of diseases. The three most deadly were probably smallpox, measels, and bubonic plagues. All three are are deadly if there is no resistance, immunities, or medicines to fight them. The population in the Chinese and Roman empires declined sharply. When Augustus reigned the Roman empire, there were about 60 million people living in the empire. During the second century C.E., Roman population declined to about 45 million due to epidemics. The most devestaing was an outbreak of smallpox that spread through the Mediterranean basin from 165-180 C.E. The disease also killed the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius in 180 C.E. Outbreaks and war caused a population decline in the third and fourth centuries and by 400 C.E., the Roman population had probably dropped to about 40 million. The eastern Mediterranean's population had stabalized by the sixth century C.E., but the western Mediterranean's population did not stabalize until the tenth century. The Chinese were hit by epedemics in about 200 C.E. Their population was: 60 million in 200 C.E., 50 million in 400 C.E., and 45 million in 600 C.E. Trade within empires declined and economies shrunk. The Chinese and Roman economies moved toward self-sufficiency. Smaller regional economies were created that concentrated on their own needs and not needs of other regions. There is limited information on epidemics in India and Persia, but they probably experienced epidemics similar to the ones in the Chinese and Roman empires. Epidemic diseases contributed to the instablity in China after the fall of the Han dynasty, the weakening of Mediterranean society, and the decline and fall of the western Roman empire.
Cross Cultural Exchanges and the Silk Road Notes (pg. 287-310)
In the year 139 B.C.E., the Chinese emperor Han Wudi sent an envoy named Zhang Qian on a mission to lands west of china. The emperor's purpose was to find allies who could help combat the nomadic Xiongnu, who menaced the northern and western borders of the Han empire. From captives he had learned that other nomadic peoples in far wester lands bore grudges against the Xiongnu, and he reasoned that they might ally with Han forces to pressure their common enemy.
The problem for Zhang Qian was that to communicate with potential allies against the Xiongnu, he had to pass directly through lands they controlled. When Zhang Qian left Han territory, Xiongnu forcers captured him. For ten years the Xiongnu held him in comfortable captivity: they allowed him to keep his personal servant, and they provided him with a wife, with whom he had a son. However, he escaped with his family and servant. He even kept the yak tail that Han Wudi had given him as a sign of his ambassadorial status. He fled to the west, but didn't succeed in lining up allies against the Xiongnu. While returning to China, Zhang Qian again fell into Xiongnu hands but managed to escape after one year's detention when the death of the Xiongnu leader led to a period of turmoil.
Although his diplomatic efforts did not succeed, Zhang Qian's mission had far-reaching consequences. Zhang Qian had brought back information of immense commercial value. While in Bactria about 128 B.C.E., he noticed Chinese goods-textiles and bamboo articles-offered for sale in local markets. He found out that the the articles had come by way of Bengal. From this information he deduced the possibility of establishing trade relations between China and Bactria through India.
The intelligence that Zhang Qian gathered during his travels thus contributed to the opening of the silk roads-the network of trade routes that linked lands as distant as China and the Roman empire - and more generally to the establishment of relations between China and lands to the west. China and other classical societies imposed political and military control over vast territories. They promoted trade and communication within their own empires, bringing regions that had previously been self-sufficient into a larger economy and society.
The influence of the classical societies did not stop at the imperial boundaries. Nearby peoples regarded their powerful neighbors with a mixture of envy and suspicion, and they sought to share teh wealth that those neighbors generated.
Beyond their relations with neighboring peoples, the classical societies established a broad zone of communication and exchange throughout much of the earth's eastern hemisphere. Trade networks crossed the deserts of central Asia and the depths of the Indian Ocean. Long-distance trade passed through much of eurasia and north Africa, from China to the Mediterranean basin, and to parts of sub-Saharan Africa as well.
This long-distance trade profoundly influenced the experiences of peoples and the development of societies throughout the easter hemisphere. It brought wealth and access to foreign products, and it enabled peoples to concentrate their efforts on economic activities best suited to their regions. It facilitated the spread of religious traditions beyond their original homelands, since merchants carried their beliefs and sometimes attracted converts in the lands they visited.
Long-Distance Trade and the Silk Roads Network
Human communities have traded with one another, sometimes over long distances. Before classical times, long-distance trade was a risky venture. Ancient societies often policed their own realms effectively, but since they were relatively small and compact, extensive regions lay beyond their control. Trade passing between societies was therefore liable to interception by bandits or pirates. This risk increased the costs of long-distance transactions in ancient times.
During the classical era, two developments reduced the risks associated with travel and stimulated long-distance trade. Rulers invested heavily in the construction of roads and bridges. They undertook expensive projects primarily for military and administrative reasons, but roads also had the effect of encouraging trade within individual societies and facilitating exchanges between different societies. Classical societies built large imperial states that sometimes expanded to the point that they bordered on one another: the campaigns of Alexander of Macedon, brought Hellenistic and Indian societies into direct contact, and only small buffer states separated the Roman and Parthian empires.
Trade Networks of the Hellenistic Era
Long-distance trade's tempo noticeably increased during the Hellenistic era, partly because of the many colonies established by Alexander of Macedon and the Seleucid rulers in Persia and Bactria. Though originally populated by military forces and administrators, these settlements soon attracted Greed merchants and bankers who linked the recently conquered lands to the Mediterranean basin. The Seleucid rulers worked to promote trade. They controlled land routes linking Bactria, which offered access to Indian markets, to Mediterranean ports in Syria and Palestine.
Like the Seleucids, the Ptolemies maintained land routes-in their case, routes going south from Egypt to the kingdom of Nubia and Meroe in east Africa-but they also paid close attention to sea lanes and maritime trade. The ousted pirates from sea lanes linking the Red Sea to the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean. They also built several new ports, the most important being Berenice on the Red Sea, while Alexandria served as their principal window on the Mediterranean.
Mariners from Ptolemaic Egypt learned about the monsoon winds that governed sailing and shipping in the Indian Ocean. During the summer the winds blow regularly from the southwest, whereas in the winter they come from the northeast. Knowledge of these winds enabled mariners to sail safely and reliably to all parts of the Indian Ocean basin. During the second century B.C.E., Hellenistic mariners learned the rhythm of these winds from Arab and Indian seamen whose ancestors had sailed before the monsoons for centuries. Merchants then established regular links by way of the Red Sea between India and Arabia in the east and Egypt and the mediterranean basin in the west.
Establishment and maintenance of these trade routes were very expensive and called for substantial investment in military forces, construction, and bureaucracies to administer the commerce that passed over the routes. Long-distance trade stimulated economic development within the Hellenistic realms themselves, bringing benefits to local economies.
With official encouragement, a substantial trade developed throughout the Hellenistic world, from Bactria and India in the east to the Mediterranean basin in the west. Spices, pepper, cosmetics, gems, and pearls from India traveled by caravan and ship to Hellenistic cities and ports. Grain from Persia and Egypt fed urban population in distant lands. Mediterranean wine, olive oil, jewelry, and works of art made their way to Persia and Bactria.
Maritime trade networks through the Indian Ocean linked not only the large classical societies of Eurasia and north Africa, but also smaller societies in east Africa. During the late centuries B.C.E., the port of Rhapta emerged as the central center on the east African coast. With increasing trade, groups of professional merchants and entrepreneurs emerged at Rhapta, and coins came into general use on the east African coast. Merchants of Rhapta imported iron goods(spears, axes, and knives) from southern Arabia and the easter Mediterranean region in exchange for ivory, rhinoceros horn, tortoise shell, and slaves obtained from interior regions. the Hellenistic era fostered economic organization and the emergence of states in the distant lands that they brought into interaction.
The Silk Road
When classical empires were established, the scope of long-distance trade expanded. As it became more popular, merchants and travelers began to construct trade routes. (MU) These were referred to as the silk roads and connected much of Eurasia. From the Han capital of Chang'an, the main road went west until it arrived at the Taklamakan desert. One of the most dangerous and inhospitable regions of the earth, the desert would cause problems for trade, so the silk road split into two main branches that skirted the desert and passed through oasis towns around it to the north and south. (MU) The silk roads included many roads and sea lanes that sometimes broke into separate branches. The silk road got its' name because silk was a popular good traded over it, mainly exchanged by China. On the positive side, people could trade goods and ideas, but negatively, communicable diseases were spread. Religions like Buddhism,(MU) Hinduism, and Christianity were also spread throughout the silk roads sharing their culture and architecture. Spices were another popular exchanged good. Cloves, nutmeg, mace, and cardamom came from southeast Asia. (MU) Spices were mainly for food preservation, flavoring, and medicines. India exported cotton textiles and exotic items such as pearls, coral, and ivory. (MU) Central Asia traded jade and horses while the Roman empire traded glassware, jewlery,The Spread of Buddhism and Hinduism
Buddhism had become well established in northern India by the third century B.C.E. It attracted(MU) lots of merchants who then spread Buddhism to Iran, central Asia, China, and southeast Asia. Buddhism was first established in oasis towns located along the silk roads. Buddhism then spread to the steppes in central Asia and to China. Buddhism was the most prominent faith of silk roads merchants from about 200 B.C.E. to 700 C.E. As Buddhism spread to central Asia and China, both Buddhism and Hinduism were attracting followers(MU) in southeast Asia. Merchants also spread their faith using the sea lanes. Many Indian rulers and kings converted to Buddhism, while the others spread Hindu cults. The rulers began to call themselves rajas and would try to increase their rule by relating themselves with religious traditions(M.M.).The Spread of Christianity
During early centuries C.E., the Roman officials persecuted early Christians. Christian missionaries took Paul of Tarsus as their example to attract converts (MU), and also used the silk roads to spread Christianity. During second and third centuries C.E. many missionaries spread Christianity through the Mediterranean basin. One of the more famous missionaries was Gregory the Wonderworker. He performed miracles (expelled demons, moved boulders, changed the path of rivers during floods) and made Christianity popular in central Anatolia. By the late third century C.E., Christianity was popular throughout the Meditteranean Basin despite continual opposition from the Roman government. By the second century C.E. Christianity also flourished in southwest Asia (Mesopotamia, Iran, India). Christianity became a main religion in southwest Asia along with Judaism and Zorastrianism. After about fifth century C.E., Christian communities in the Mediterranean basin and southwest Asia became increasingly different and didn't agree on some issues. Christianity was also popular amongst the lower classes that included people living in urban areas and women(M.M.).The Spread of Manichaeism![ManichaeismSpread[1].jpg](http://apworldhistorywiki.wikispaces.com/file/view/ManichaeismSpread%5B1%5D.jpg/253704362/596x210/ManichaeismSpread%5B1%5D.jpg "ManichaeismSpread[1].jpg")
Manichaeism is based on a Zorastian prophet called Mani (216-272 C.E.). He was also influenced by Christianity and Buddhism. He said that Zarathustra was the prophet of Persia, Buddha was the prophet of India, and Jesus was the prophet of the Mediterranean. He thought the world needed a prophet for all humanity. He blended Zoroastrian, Christian, and Buddhism to create a faith that would serve the needs of a cosmopolitan world. He urged followers to reject worldy pleasures. His doctrine explained the presence of good and evil and also provided ways to achieve personal salvation. He insited that individuals had high ethical standards. Devout Manichaeans abstained from marrige, sexual relations, fine clothing, meat, rich foods, and other personal comforts. Less devout Manichaeans led more conventional lives, but still observed a strict moral code and provided food and gifts for devout Manichaeans. By the end of the third century C.E., Manichaeism communities had been established in all of the large cities and trading centers of the Roman empire. Political leaders exterminated Manichaeism in the Mediterranean basin during the fifth and sixth centuries C.E., but it survived in central Asia.The Spread of Epidemic Diseases
The silk roads also made it easier for infectious and contagious diseases to spread throughout the classical world. These diseases were exposed to populations who didn't have any immunity to them, causing many deaths. During the second and third centuries C.E. the Han and Roman empires experienced outbreaks of diseases. The three most deadly were probably smallpox, measels, and bubonic plagues. All three are are deadly if there is no resistance, immunities, or medicines to fight them. The population in the Chinese and Roman empires declined sharply. When Augustus reigned the Roman empire, there were about 60 million people living in the empire. During the second century C.E., Roman population declined to about 45 million due to epidemics. The most devestaing was an outbreak of smallpox that spread through the Mediterranean basin from 165-180 C.E. The disease also killed the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius in 180 C.E. Outbreaks and war caused a population decline in the third and fourth centuries and by 400 C.E., the Roman population had probably dropped to about 40 million. The eastern Mediterranean's population had stabalized by the sixth century C.E., but the western Mediterranean's population did not stabalize until the tenth century. The Chinese were hit by epedemics in about 200 C.E. Their population was: 60 million in 200 C.E., 50 million in 400 C.E., and 45 million in 600 C.E. Trade within empires declined and economies shrunk. The Chinese and Roman economies moved toward self-sufficiency. Smaller regional economies were created that concentrated on their own needs and not needs of other regions. There is limited information on epidemics in India and Persia, but they probably experienced epidemics similar to the ones in the Chinese and Roman empires. Epidemic diseases contributed to the instablity in China after the fall of the Han dynasty, the weakening of Mediterranean society, and the decline and fall of the western Roman empire.Pictures:
http://www.canvaz.com/buddha/buddha-056.jpg
http://www.google.com/imgres?q=manichaeism&um=1&hl=en&sa=N&qscrl=1&nord=1&rlz=1T4ADFA
Nisha Holay (N.H.)
E.P.
2. Madison McGuire (M.M.)
Makayla Urbauer (M.U.)